Glossary
Effortlessly navigate the QCAA Psychology Glossary to find and understand key terms and concepts
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A
ATAR
Australian Tertiary Admission Rank
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Accomplished
Highly trained or skilled in a particular activity; perfected in knowledge or training; expert
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Accuracy
The condition or quality of being true, correct or exact; freedom from error or defect; precision or exactness; correctness; in science, the extent to which a measurement result represents the quantity it purports to measure; an accurate measurement result includes an estimate of the true value and an estimate of the uncertainty
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Accurate
Precise and exact; to the point; consistent with or exactly conforming to a truth, standard, rule, model, convention or known facts; free from error or defect; meticulous; correct in all details
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Acknowledgment
Recognition of the authority or validity of something
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Adept
Very/highly skilled or proficient at something; expert
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Adequate
Satisfactory or acceptable in quality or quantity equal to the requirement or occasion
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Algebraic representations
A set of symbols linked by mathematical operations; the set of symbols summarise relationships between variables (ACARA 2015c)
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Algorithm
An effective procedure for solving a particular mathematical problem in a finite number of steps
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Alternative hypothesis
Also known as an experimental hypothesis, a hypothesis stating that there is a statistical significance between two variables; a statement about a population parameter that is alternative to the null hypothesis, which states that there is a non-zero effect of a stated exact size; for example, \( H_1 : \mu = 50 \) (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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Analyse
Dissect to ascertain and examine constituent parts and/or their relationships; break down or examine in order to identify the essential elements, features, components or structure; determine the logic and reasonableness of information; examine or consider something in order to explain and interpret it, for the purpose of finding meaning or relationships and identifying patterns, similarities and differences
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Analysis
Examination of evidence to identify the essential features, components, elements or structure; identification of patterns, similarities and differences
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Analytical technique
A procedure or method for analysing data
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Applied learning
The acquisition and application of knowledge, understanding and skills in real-world or lifelike contexts that may encompass workplace, industry and community situations; it emphasises learning through doing and includes both theory and the application of theory, connecting subject knowledge and understanding with the development of practical skills
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Applied subject
A subject whose primary pathway is work and vocational education; it emphasises applied learning and community connections; a subject for which a syllabus has been developed by the QCAA with the following characteristics: results from courses developed from Applied syllabuses contribute to the QCE; results may contribute to ATAR calculations
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Apply
Use knowledge and understanding in response to a given situation or circumstance; carry out or use a procedure in a given or particular situation
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Appraise
Evaluate the worth, significance or status of something; judge or consider a text or piece of work
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Appreciate
Recognise or make a judgment about the value or worth of something; understand fully; grasp the full implications of
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Appropriate
Acceptable; suitable or fitting for a particular purpose, circumstance, context, etc.
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Apt
Suitable to the purpose or occasion; fitting, appropriate
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Area of study
A division of, or a section within a unit
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Argue
Give reasons for or against something; challenge or debate an issue or idea; persuade, prove or try to prove by giving reasons
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Argument
Process of reasoning; series of reasons; a statement or fact tending to support a point
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Aspect
A particular part of a feature of something; a facet, phase or part of a whole
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Assess
Measure, determine, evaluate, estimate or make a judgment about the value, quality, outcomes, results, size, significance, nature or extent of something
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Assessment
Purposeful and systematic collection of information about students' achievements
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Assessment instrument
A tool or device used to gather information about student achievement
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Assessment objectives
Drawn from the unit objectives and contextualised for the requirements of the assessment instrument (see also 'syllabus objectives', 'unit objectives')
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Assessment technique
The method used to gather evidence about student achievement (e.g. examination, project, investigation)
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Astute
Showing an ability to accurately assess situations or people; of keen discernment
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Authoritative
Able to be trusted as being accurate or true; reliable; commanding and self-confident; likely to be respected and obeyed
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B
Balanced
Keeping or showing a balance; not biased; fairly judged or presented; taking everything into account in a fair, well-judged way
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Basic
Fundamental
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Behaviour
In science, the action of any material; the action or activity of an individual
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C
Calculate
Determine or find (e.g. a number, answer) by using mathematical processes; obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working; ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information
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Case study
An in-depth and longitudinal analysis of a person, group or phenomenon; a study that uses a variety of techniques, including personal interviews, direct observation, psychometric tests and archival records
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Categorise
Place in or assign to a particular class or group; arrange or order by classes or categories; classify, sort out, sort, separate
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Challenging
Difficult but interesting; testing one's abilities; demanding and thought-provoking; usually involving unfamiliar or less familiar elements
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Characteristic
A typical feature or quality
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Claim
An assertion made without any accompanying evidence to support it
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Clarify
Make clear or intelligible; explain; make a statement or situation less confused and more comprehensible
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Clarity
Clearness of thought or expression; the quality of being coherent and intelligible; free from obscurity of sense; without ambiguity; explicit; easy to perceive, understand or interpret
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Classify
Arrange, distribute or order in classes or categories according to shared qualities or characteristics
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Clear
Free from confusion, uncertainty, or doubt; easily seen, heard or understood
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Clearly
In a clear manner; plainly and openly, without ambiguity
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Coherent
Having a natural or due agreement of parts; connected; consistent; logical, orderly; well-structured and makes sense; rational, with parts that are harmonious; having an internally consistent relation of parts
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Cohesive
Characterised by being united, bound together or having integrated meaning; forming a united whole
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Collate
To put together; to compare
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Collection
In science, a systematic approach to gathering and measuring evidence from a variety of sources in order to evaluate outcomes and make predictions
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Comment
Express an opinion, observation or reaction in speech or writing; give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation
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Communicate
Convey knowledge and/or understandings to others; make known; transmit
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Compare
Display recognition of similarities and differences and recognise the significance of these similarities and differences
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Competent
Having suitable or sufficient skills, knowledge, experience, etc. for some purpose; adequate but not exceptional; capable; suitable or sufficient for the purpose; having the necessary ability, knowledge or skill to do something successfully; efficient and capable (of a person); acceptable and satisfactory, though not outstanding
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Competently
In an efficient and capable way; in an acceptable and satisfactory, though not outstanding, way
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Complex
Composed or consisting of many different and interconnected parts or factors; compound; composite; characterised by an involved combination of parts; complicated; intricate; a complex whole or system; a complicated assembly of particulars
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Comprehend
Understand the meaning or nature of; grasp mentally
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Comprehensive
Inclusive; of large content or scope; including or dealing with all or nearly all elements or aspects of something; wide-ranging; detailed and thorough, including all that is relevant
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Concept
In science, an idea or model explaining some natural phenomenon; a theoretical construct; a thought, idea or notion
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Concise
Expressing much in few words; giving a lot of information clearly and in a few words; brief, comprehensive and to the point; succinct, clear, without repetition of information
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Concisely
In a way that is brief but comprehensive; expressing much in few words; clearly and succinctly
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Conclusion
A judgment based on evidence (ACARA 2015c)
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Conduct
Direct in action or course; manage; organise; carry out
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Confounding variables
Variables that a researcher fails to control that can affect the internal validity of an experiment
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Consider
Think deliberately or carefully about something, typically before making a decision; take something into account when making a judgment; view attentively or scrutinize; reflect on
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Considerable
Fairly large or great; thought about deliberately and with a purpose
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Considered
Formed after careful and deliberate thought
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Consistent
Agreeing or accordant; compatible; not self-opposed or self-contradictory, constantly adhering to the same principles; acting in the same way over time, especially so as to be fair or accurate; unchanging in nature, standard, or effect over time; not containing any logical contradictions (of an argument); constant in achievement or effect over a period of time
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Construct
Create or put together (e.g. an argument) by arranging ideas or items; display information in a diagrammatic or logical form; make; build
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Contrast
Display recognition of differences by deliberate juxtaposition of contrary elements; show how things are different or opposite; give an account of the differences between two or more items or situations, referring to both or all of them throughout
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Control
In relation to a group, the group of participants not exposed to the independent variable
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Controlled
Shows the exercise of restraint or direction over; held in check; restrained, managed or kept within certain bounds
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Convenience Sampling
A sampling procedure that chooses participants based on availability; a practically achievable — rather than random — sample from a population (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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Convincing
Persuaded by argument or proof; leaving no margin of doubt; clear; capable of causing someone to believe that something is true or real; persuading or assuring by argument or evidence; appearing worthy of belief; credible or plausible
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Correct
Conforming to fact or truth; accurate
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Correlational Research Designs
Research that assesses the degree to which two variables are related, so that knowing the value of one variable can lead to prediction of a second variable (Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2015)
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Counterbalancing
An experimental procedure; a random assignment of participants in a study with a repeated measures design to different testing orders, or other conditions, to reduce any carryover effects (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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Course
A defined amount of learning developed from a subject syllabus
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Create
Bring something into being or existence; produce or evolve from one's own thought or imagination; reorganise or put elements together into a new pattern or structure or to form a coherent or functional whole
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Creative
Resulting from originality of thought or expression; relating to or involving the use of the imagination or original ideas to create something; having good imagination or original ideas
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Credible
Capable or worthy of being believed; believable; convincing
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Criterion
The property or characteristic by which something is judged or appraised
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Critical
Involving skilful judgment as to truth, merit, etc.; involving the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment; expressing or involving an analysis of the merits and faults of a work of literature, music, or art; incorporating a detailed and scholarly analysis and commentary (of a text); rational appraisal for logical consistency and merit
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Critique
Review (e.g. a theory, practice, performance) in a detailed, analytical and critical way
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Cursory
Hasty, and therefore not thorough or detailed; performed with little attention to detail; going rapidly over something, without noticing details; hasty; superficial
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D
Data
In science, measurements of an attribute or attributes; data may be quantitative or qualitative and be from primary or secondary sources (ACARA 2015c); qualitative data and/or quantitative data (e.g. diagram, graph, image, map, photograph, table) derived from a practical, activity or case study
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Dataset
Qualitative data and/or quantitative data (e.g. diagram, graph, image, map, photograph, table) derived from a practical, activity or case study
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Decide
Reach a resolution as a result of consideration; make a choice from a number of alternatives
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Deduce
Reach a conclusion that is necessarily true, provided a given set of assumptions is true; arrive at, reach or draw a logical conclusion from reasoning and the information given
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Defensible
Justifiable by argument; capable of being defended in argument
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Define
Give the meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity; state meaning and identify or describe qualities
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Demonstrate
Prove or make clear by argument, reasoning or evidence, illustrating with practical example; show by example; give a practical exhibition
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Dependent Variable
The variable measured in a study that provides the data to be analysed (Cumming & Cain-Jageman 2017)
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Derive
Arrive at by reasoning; manipulate a mathematical relationship to give a new equation or relationship; in mathematics, obtain the derivative of a function
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Describe
Give an account (written or spoken) of a situation, event, pattern or process, or of the characteristics or features of something
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Design
Produce a plan, simulation, model or similar; plan, form or conceive in the mind; in English, select, organise and use particular elements in the process of text construction for particular purposes; these elements may be linguistic (words), visual (images), audio (sounds), gestural (body language), spatial (arrangement on the page or screen) and multimodal (a combination of more than one)
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Detailed
Executed with great attention to the fine points; meticulous; including many of the parts or facts
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Determine
Establish, conclude or ascertain after consideration, observation, investigation or calculation; decide or come to a resolution
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Develop
Elaborate, expand or enlarge in detail; add detail and fullness to; cause to become more complex or intricate
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Devise
Think out; plan; contrive; invent
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Differentiate
Identify the difference/s in or between two or more things; distinguish, discriminate; recognise or ascertain what makes something distinct from similar things; in mathematics, obtain the derivative of a function
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Discerning
Discriminating; showing intellectual perception; showing good judgment; making thoughtful and astute choices; selected for value or relevance
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Discriminate
Note, observe or recognise a difference; make or constitute a distinction in or between; differentiate; note or distinguish as different
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Discriminating
Differentiating; distinctive; perceiving differences or distinctions with nicety; possessing discrimination; perceptive and judicious; making judgments about quality; having or showing refined taste or good judgment
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Discuss
Examine by argument; sift the considerations for and against; debate; talk or write about a topic, including a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses; consider, taking into account different issues and ideas, points for and/or against, and supporting opinions or conclusions with evidence
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Disjointed
Disconnected; incoherent; lacking a coherent order/sequence or connection
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Distinguish
Recognise as distinct or different; note points of difference between; discriminate; discern; make clear a difference/s between two or more concepts or items
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Diverse
Of various kinds or forms; different from each other
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Document
Support (e.g. an assertion, claim, statement) with evidence (e.g. decisive information, written references, citations)
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Double blind procedures
Experimental procedures whereby the methods and expected outcomes are not known by the researcher administering the experiment or the participant
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Draw conclusions
Make a judgment based on reasoning and evidence
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E
Ecological validity
A type of external validity that describes how well results obtained from research are representative of the wider world, not just of the sample
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Effective
Successful in producing the intended, desired or expected result; meeting the assigned purpose
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Efficient
Working in a well-organised and competent way; maximum productivity with minimal expenditure of effort; acting or producing effectively with a minimum of waste, expense or unnecessary effort
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Element
A component or constituent part of a complex whole; a fundamental, essential or irreducible part of a composite entity
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Elementary
Simple or uncompounded; relating to or dealing with elements, rudiments or first principles (of a subject); of the most basic kind; straightforward and uncomplicated
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Erroneous
Based on or containing error; mistaken; incorrect
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Essential
Absolutely necessary; indispensable; of critical importance for achieving something
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Ethics committees
A committee that ensures researchers follow ethical rules of conduct when undertaking psychological research in order to protect research participants, the reputation of psychology and psychologists themselves
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Evaluate
Make an appraisal by weighing up or assessing strengths, implications and limitations; make judgments about ideas, works, solutions or methods in relation to selected criteria; examine and determine the merit, value or significance of something, based on criteria
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Evidence
In science, evidence is data that has been selected as it is considered reliable and valid and can be used to support a particular idea, conclusion or decision; evidence gives weight or value to data by considering its credibility, acceptance, bias, status, appropriateness and reasonableness (ACARA 2015)
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Examination
A supervised test that assesses the application of a range of cognitions to one or more provided items such as questions, scenarios and/or problems; student responses are completed individually, under supervised conditions, and in a set timeframe
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Examine
Investigate, inspect or scrutinise; inquire or search into; consider or discuss an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue
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Experiment
In science, an investigation that involves carrying out a practical activity
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Experimental
Relating to, derived from, or founded on experiment
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Experimental group
The group of participants that are exposed to the independent variable
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Explain
Make an idea or situation plain or clear by describing it in more detail or revealing relevant facts; give an account; provide additional information
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Explicit
Clearly and distinctly expressing all that is meant; unequivocal; clearly developed or formulated; leaving nothing merely implied or suggested
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Explore
Look into both closely and broadly; scrutinise; inquire into or discuss something in detail
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Express
Convey, show or communicate (e.g. a thought, opinion, feeling, emotion, idea or viewpoint); in words, art, music or movement, convey or suggest a representation of; depict
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Extend
In science, to extend an experiment is to modify the methodology to overcome limitations of the scope or applicability of the data
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Extended response
An open-ended assessment technique that focuses on the interpretation, analysis, examination and/or evaluation of ideas and information in response to a particular situation or stimulus; while students may undertake some research when writing the extended response, it is not the focus of this technique; an extended response occurs over an extended and defined period of time; an item on an examination may also require an extended response, either written or oral
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Extension subject
A two-unit subject for which a syllabus has been developed by QCAA; it is an extension of one or more general or alternative sequence subject/s; studied concurrently with the final two units of that subject/s or after completion of, the final two units of that subject/s
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Extensions
In science, modifications to the investigation that could be used to further examine the claim
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Extensive
Of great extent; wide; broad; far-reaching; comprehensive; lengthy; detailed; large in amount or scale
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External assessment
Summative assessment that occurs towards the end of a course of study and is common to all schools; developed and marked by the QCAA according to a commonly applied marking scheme
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External examination
A supervised test, developed and marked by the QCAA, that assesses the application of a range of cognitions to multiple provided items such as questions, scenarios and/or problems; student responses are completed individually, under supervised conditions, and in a set timeframe
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Extraneous variables
Variables that inadvertently affect the experiment, other than the independent variable
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Extrapolate
Infer or estimate by extending or projecting known information; conjecture; infer from what is known; extend the application of something (e.g. a method or conclusion) to an unknown situation by assuming that existing trends will continue or similar methods will be applicable
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Extrapolation
Extension of a conclusion to a new situation, with the assumption that existing trends will continue
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F
Factual
Relating to or based on facts; concerned with what is actually the case; actually occurring; having verified existence
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Familiar
Well-acquainted; thoroughly conversant with; well-known from long or close association; often encountered or experienced; common; (of materials, texts, skills or circumstances) having been the focus of learning experiences or previously encountered in prior learning activities
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Feasible
Capable of being achieved, accomplished or put into effect; reasonable enough to be believed or accepted; probable; likely
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Feature
Distinctive attribute, characteristic, property or quality of evidence
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Findings
In science, the outcomes of research, investigation or experimentation, including facts or principles established in these ways
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Fluent
Spoken or written with ease; able to speak or write smoothly, easily or readily; articulate; eloquent; in artistic performance, characteristic of a highly developed and excellently controlled technique; flowing; polished; flowing smoothly, easily and effortlessly
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Fluently
In a graceful and seemingly effortless manner; in a way that progresses smoothly and readily
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Formative Assessment
Assessment whose major purpose is to improve teaching and student achievement
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Fragmented
Disorganised; broken down; disjointed or isolated
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Frequent
Happening or occurring often at short intervals; constant, habitual, or regular
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Fundamental
Forming a necessary base or core; of central importance; affecting or relating to the essential nature of something; part of a foundation or basis
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G
General Subject
A subject for which a syllabus has been developed by the QCAA with the following characteristics: results from courses developed from General syllabuses contribute to the QCE; General subjects have an external assessment component; results may contribute to ATAR calculations
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Generate
Produce; create; bring into existence
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Genre conventions
Agreed and acceptable conditions; a style or category
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Graphical representations
In science, a visual representation of the relationship between quantities plotted with reference to a set of axes; also known as a graph (ACARA 2015c)
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H
Hypothesis
In science, a tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon, expressed as a precise and unambiguous statement that can be supported or refuted by experiment (ACARA 2015c)
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Hypothesise
Formulate a supposition to account for known facts or observed occurrences; conjecture, theorise, speculate; especially on uncertain or tentative grounds
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I
ISMG
Instrument-specific marking guide; a tool for marking that describes the characteristics evident in student responses and aligns with the identified objectives for the assessment (see
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Identify
Distinguish; locate, recognise and name; establish or indicate who or what someone or something is; provide an answer from a number of possibilities; recognise and state a distinguishing factor or feature
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Illogical
Lacking sense or sound reasoning; contrary to or disregardful of the rules of logic; unreasonable
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Implement
Put something into effect, e.g. a plan or proposal
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Implication
A likely consequence of something; a conclusion that may be drawn though it is implied rather than explicit
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Implicit
Implied, rather than expressly stated; not plainly expressed; capable of being inferred from something else
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Improbable
Not probable; unlikely to be true or to happen; not easy to believe
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Improvements
In science, modifications to an investigation that mitigate the limitations of the evidence, method or design
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In-depth
Comprehensive and with thorough coverage; extensive or profound; well-balanced or fully developed
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Inaccurate
Not accurate
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Inadequate
Not satisfactory or acceptable in quality and/or quantity to the requirements of the situation
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Inappropriate
Not suitable or proper in the circumstances
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Inconsistent
Lacking agreement, as one thing with another, or two or more things in relation to each other; at variance; not consistent; not in keeping; not in accordance; incompatible, incongruous
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Incorrect
Not conforming to fact or truth
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Independent
Thinking or acting for oneself, not influenced by others
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Independent groups design
An experimental research design that uses different participants in each condition of the independent variable
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Independent variable
Also known as the IV, the variable with values chosen or manipulated by the researcher; the independent variable can take a number of levels (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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Ineffective
Not producing a result, or not producing any significant result; not producing the intended, desired or expected result
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Infer
Derive or conclude something from evidence and reasoning, rather than from explicit statements; listen or read beyond what has been literally expressed; imply or hint at
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Informed
Knowledgeable; learned; having relevant knowledge; being conversant with the topic; of a decision or judgment, based on an understanding of the facts of the situation
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Innovative
New and original; introducing new ideas; original and creative in thinking
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Insightful
Showing understanding of a situation or process; understanding relationships in complex situations; informed by observation and deduction
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Instrument-specific marking guide
ISMG; a tool for marking that describes the characteristics evident in student responses and aligns with the identified objectives for the assessment (see 'assessment objectives')
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Insufficient
Not enough; inadequate for the purpose
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Integral
Adjective: Necessary for the completeness of the whole; essential or fundamental; Noun: In mathematics, the result of integration; an expression from which a given function, equation, or system of equations is derived by differentiation
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Intended
Designed; meant; done on purpose; intentional
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Internal assessment
Assessments that are developed by schools; summative internal assessments are endorsed by the QCAA before use in schools and results externally confirmed; contributes towards a student's final result
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Interpret
Use knowledge and understanding to recognise trends and draw conclusions from given information; make clear or explicit; elucidate or understand in a particular way; bring out the meaning of, e.g., a dramatic or musical work, by performance or execution; bring out the meaning of an artwork by artistic representation or performance; give one's own interpretation of; identify or draw meaning from, or give meaning to, information presented in various forms, such as words, symbols, pictures or graphs
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Interviews
Research tools in which the investigator asks the participant questions (Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2015)
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Invalid
Not sound, just or well-founded; not having a sound basis in logic or fact (or an argument or point); not reasonable or cogent; not able to be supported; not legitimate or defensible; not applicable
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Investigate
Carry out an examination or formal inquiry in order to establish or obtain facts and reach new conclusions; search, inquire into, interpret and draw conclusions about data and information
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Investigation
An assessment technique that requires students to research a specific problem, question, issue, design challenge or hypothesis through the collection, analysis and synthesis of primary and/or secondary data; It uses research or investigative practices to assess a range of cognitions in a particular context; an investigation occurs over an extended and defined period of time; In science, an investigation is a scientific process of answering a question, exploring an idea or solving a problem that requires activities such as planning a course of action, collecting data, interpreting data, reaching a conclusion and communicating these activities (ACARA 2015c)
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Irrelevant
Not relevant; not applicable or pertinent; not connected with or relevant to something
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Isolated
Detached, separate, or unconnected with other things; one-off; something set apart or characterised as different in some way
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J
Judge
Form an opinion or conclusion about; apply both procedural and deliberative operations to make a determination
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Justified
Sound reasons or evidence are provided to support an argument, statement or conclusion
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Justify
Give reasons or evidence to support an answer, response or conclusion; show or prove how an argument, statement or conclusion is right or reasonable
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L
Learning area
A grouping of subjects, with related characteristics, within a broad field of learning, e.g. the Arts, sciences, languages
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Limitation
A weak point or disadvantage that makes evidence less effective
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Link
Anything serving to connect one part or thing with another
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Logical
Rational and valid; internally consistent; reasonable; reasoning in accordance with the principles/rules of logic or formal argument; characterised by or capable of clear, sound reasoning; (of an action, decision, etc.) expected or sensible under the circumstances
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Logically
According to the rules of logic or formal argument; in a way that shows clear, sound reasoning; in a way that is expected or sensible
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M
Make decisions
Select from available options; weigh up positives and negatives of each option and consider all the alternatives to arrive at a position
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Management
Handling, direction or control
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Manipulate
Adapt or change to suit one
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Matched participants design
An experimental research design that matches participants on an important characteristic that may affect performance, i.e., age, gender, IQ, and then one member from each matched pair is randomly assigned to the experimental or control group
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Mental procedures
A domain of knowledge in Marzano
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Methodical
Performed, disposed or acting in a systematic way; orderly; characterised by method or order; performed or carried out systematically
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Methodology
A systematic, ordered approach to gathering data in a scientific experiment or investigation
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Minimal
Least possible; small, the least amount; negligible
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Model
In science, a representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object, system or idea (ACARA 2015c)
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Modifications
In science, changes to methodology to extend, refine or redirect the research focus
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Modify
Change the form or qualities of; make partial or minor changes to something
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Multimodal
Uses a combination of at least two modes (e.g., spoken, written), delivered at the same time, to communicate ideas and information to a live or virtual audience, for a particular purpose; the selected modes are integrated so that each mode contributes significantly to the response
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N
Narrow
Limited in range or scope; lacking breadth of view; limited in amount; barely sufficient or adequate; restricted
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Nuanced
Showing a subtle difference or distinction in expression, meaning, response, etc.; finely differentiated; characterised by subtle shades of meaning or expression; a subtle distinction, variation or quality; sensibility to, awareness of, or ability to express delicate shadings, as of meaning, feeling, or value
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Null Hypothesis
A hypothesis that sample observations result purely by chance; a general statement or default position that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena, or no association among groups; a statement about a population parameter, often \(H_0 : \mu = 0\), that is tested (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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O
Objectives
See
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Observational Research Designs
A type of research method that involves the observation and description of a subject's behaviour; types include direct (participant observation, structured observation and field experiments) and indirect (physical trace evidence and archival records).
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Obvious
Clearly perceptible or evident; easily seen, recognised or understood
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Optimal
Best, most favourable, under a particular set of circumstances
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Organise
Arrange, order; form as or into a whole consisting of interdependent or coordinated parts, especially for harmonious or united action
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Organised
Systematically ordered and arranged; having a formal organisational structure to arrange, coordinate and carry out activities
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Outcome
Result of something; a consequence
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Outlier
A value that
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Outstanding
Exceptionally good; clearly noticeable; prominent; conspicuous; striking
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P
Partial
Not total or general; existing only in part; attempted, but incomplete
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Participant
In relation to a variable, participant variables are individual characteristics of participants that could affect the results of psychological research, e.g. mood, intelligence, anxiety, concentration; In relation to expectations, participant expectations are the way participants may adjust their behaviour depending on the nature and design of the psychological research
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Particular
Distinguished or different from others or from the ordinary; noteworthy
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Pattern
A repeated occurrence or sequence (ACARA 2015c)
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Perceptive
Having or showing insight and the ability to perceive or understand; discerning (see also 'discriminating')
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Performance
An assessment technique that requires students to demonstrate a range of cognitive, technical, creative and/or expressive skills and to apply theoretical and conceptual understandings, through the psychomotor domain; it involves student application of identified skills when responding to a task that involves solving a problem, providing a solution or conveying meaning or intent; a performance is developed over an extended and defined period of time
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Persuasive
Capable of changing someone's ideas, opinions or beliefs; appearing worthy of approval or acceptance; (of an argument or statement) communicating reasonably or credibly (see also 'convincing')
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Perusal time
Time allocated in an assessment to reading items and tasks and associated assessment materials; no writing is allowed; students may not make notes and may not commence responding to the assessment in the response space/book
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Phenomena
Events that are not artificial and can be observed through the senses or can be scientifically described or explained
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Planning time
Time allocated in an assessment to planning how to respond to items and tasks and associated assessment materials; students may make notes but may not commence responding to the assessment in the response space/book; notes made during planning are not collected, nor are they graded or used as evidence of achievement
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Polished
Flawless or excellent; performed with skilful ease
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Population validity
A type of external validity that describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to the population as a whole
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Practical
In science, an activity that produces primary data
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Precise
Definite or exact; definitely or strictly stated, defined or fixed; characterised by definite or exact expression or execution
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Precision
Accuracy; exactness; exact observance of forms in conduct or actions
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Predict
Give an expected result of an upcoming action or event; suggest what may happen based on available information
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Primary data
Data collected directly by a person or group (ACARA 2015c)
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Process
In science, to collect and manipulate data to produce meaningful information; operate on a set of data to extract the required information in an appropriate form such as tables or graphs
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Product
An assessment technique that focuses on the output or result of a process requiring the application of a range of cognitive, physical, technical, creative and/or expressive skills, and theoretical and conceptual understandings; a product is developed over an extended and defined period of time
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Proficient
Well advanced or expert in any art, science or subject; competent, skilled or adept in doing or using something
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Project
An assessment technique that focusses on a problem-solving process requiring the application of a range of cognitive, technical and creative skills and theoretical understandings; the response is a coherent work that documents the iterative process undertaken to develop a solution and includes written paragraphs and annotations, diagrams, sketches, drawings, photographs, video, spoken presentations, physical prototypes and/or models; a project is developed over an extended and defined period of time
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Propose
Put forward (e.g. a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action
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Prove
Use a sequence of steps to obtain the required result in a formal way
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Psychomotor Procedures
A domain of knowledge in Marzano's taxonomy, and acted upon by the cognitive, metacognitive and self-systems; these are physical procedures used to negotiate daily life and to engage in complex physical activities; the two categories of psychomotor procedures are skills (foundational procedures and simple combination procedures) and processes (complex combination procedures)
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Purposeful
Having an intended or desired result; having a useful purpose; determined; resolute; full of meaning; significant; intentional
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Q
QCE
Queensland Certificate of Education
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Qualitative Data
Information that is not numerical in nature
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Quality of Evidence
The standard of evidence, as measured against relevant criteria
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Quantitative Data
Numerical information (Taylor 1982)
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Quantity
In science, having magnitude, size, extent, amount or the like
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Quasi-Experimental Designs
Research designs that employ the logic of experimental methods but lack absolute control over variables (Burton, Westen & Kowalski 2015)
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R
Random Allocation
A sampling procedure that ensures each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or the other
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Random Sampling
A sampling procedure that ensures all participants have an equal chance of being selected from the population
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Rationale
A set of reasons, or logical basis for a course of action or decision
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Raw Data
Unprocessed and/or unanalysed data; data that has been collected without any additional processing (Taylor 1982)
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Realise
Create or make (e.g. a musical, artistic or dramatic work); actualise; make real or concrete; give reality or substance to
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Reasonable
Endowed with reason; having sound judgment; fair and sensible; based on good sense; average; appropriate, moderate
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Reasoned
Logical and sound; based on logic or good sense; logically thought out and presented with justification; guided by reason; well-grounded; considered
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Recall
Remember; present remembered ideas, facts or experiences; bring something back into thought, attention or into one
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Recognise
Identify or recall particular features of information from knowledge; identify that an item, characteristic or quality exists; perceive as existing or true; be aware of or acknowledge
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Redirect
In science, to redirect an experiment is to modify the methodology to gain further insight into the phenomena observed in the original experiment
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Referencing Conventions
Agreed, consistent ways of referencing a source of information
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Refine
In science, to refine an experiment is to modify the methodology to obtain more accurate or precise data
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Refined
Developed or improved so as to be precise, exact or subtle
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Reflect On
Think about deeply and carefully
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Rehearsed
Practised; previously experienced; practised extensively
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Related
Associated with or linked to
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Relationship
Scientific relationships are a connection or association between ideas or between components of systems and structures (ACARA 2015c)
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Relevance
Being related to the matter at hand
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Relevant
Bearing upon or connected with the matter in hand; to the purpose; applicable and pertinent; having a direct bearing on
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Reliability
In science, the likelihood that another experimenter will obtain the same results (or very similar results) if they perform exactly the same experiment under the same conditions (ACARA 2015c, Taylor 1982)
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Reliable
Constant and dependable or consistent and repeatable
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Repeated Measures Design
An experimental research design where the same participants take part in each condition;
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Repetitive
Containing or characterised by repetition, especially when unnecessary or tiresome
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Reporting
Providing information that succinctly describes student performance at different junctures throughout a course of study
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Representation
In science, verbal, physical or mathematical demonstration of understanding of a science concept or concepts; a concept can be represented in a range of ways and using multiple models (ACARA 2015c)
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Research
To locate, gather, record and analyse information in order to develop understanding (ACARA 2015c)
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Research ethics
Norms of conduct that determine ethical research behaviour; research ethics are governed by principles such as honesty, objectivity, integrity, openness, and respect for intellectual property and include consideration of animal ethics (ACARA 2015c)
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Research question
A question that directs the scientific inquiry activity; it focuses the research investigation or student experiment, informing the direction of the research, and guiding all stages of inquiry, analysis, interpretation and evaluation
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Resolve
In the Arts, consolidate and communicate intent through a synthesis of ideas and application of media to express meaning
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Risk assessment
Evaluations performed to identify, assess and control hazards in a systematic way that is consistent, relevant and applicable to all school activities; requirements for risk assessments related to particular activities will be determined by jurisdictions, schools or teachers as appropriate (ACARA 2015c)
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Routine
Often encountered, previously experienced; commonplace; customary and regular; well-practised; performed as part of a regular procedure, rather than for a special reason
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Rudimentary
Relating to rudiments or first principles; elementary; undeveloped; involving or limited to basic principles; relating to an immature, undeveloped or basic form
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S
Safe
Secure; not risky
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Scientific language
Terminology that has specific meaning in a scientific context
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Scrutinise
To examine closely or critically
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Secondary data
Data collected by a person or group other than the person or group using the data (ACARA 2015c)
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Secure
Sure; certain; able to be counted on; self-confident; poised; dependable; confident; assured; not liable to fail
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Select
Choose in preference to another or others; pick out
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Self-report research designs
Any test, measure or survey that allows participants to report on their own symptoms, behaviours, beliefs or attitudes
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Sensitive
Capable of perceiving with a sense or senses; aware of the attitudes, feelings or circumstances of others; having acute mental or emotional sensibility; relating to or connected with the senses or sensation
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Sequence
Place in a continuous or connected series; arrange in a particular order
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Show
Provide the relevant reasoning to support a response
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Significant
Important; of consequence; expressing a meaning; indicative; includes all that is important; sufficiently great or important to be worthy of attention; noteworthy; having a particular meaning; indicative of something
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Simple
Easy to understand, deal with and use; not complex or complicated; plain; not elaborate or artificial; may concern a single or basic aspect; involving few elements, components or steps
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Simplistic
Characterised by extreme simplification, especially if misleading; oversimplified
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Simulation
A representation of a process, event or system which imitates a real or idealised situation (ACARA 2015c)
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Single blind procedures
Experimental procedures whereby the methods and expected outcomes are not known by participants
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Sketch
Execute a drawing or painting in simple form, giving essential features but not necessarily with detail or accuracy; represent by means of a diagram or graph; the sketch should give a general idea of the required shape or relationship and should include features
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Skilful
Having technical facility or practical ability; possessing, showing, involving or requiring skill; expert, dexterous; demonstrating the knowledge, ability or training to perform a certain activity or task well; trained, practised or experienced
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Skilled
Having or showing the knowledge, ability or training to perform a certain activity or task well; having skill; trained or experienced; showing, involving or requiring skill
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Solve
Find an answer to, explanation for, or means of dealing with (e.g. a problem); work out the answer or solution to (e.g. a mathematical problem); obtain the answer/s using algebraic, numerical and/or graphical methods
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Sophisticated
Of intellectual complexity; reflecting a high degree of skill, intelligence, etc.; employing advanced or refined methods or concepts; highly developed or complicated
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Source
Any piece of scientific literature or text from which scientific evidence is drawn
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Specific
Clearly defined or identified; precise and clear in making statements or issuing instructions; having a special application or reference; explicit, or definite; peculiar or proper to something, as qualities, characteristics, effects, etc.
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Sporadic
Happening now and again or at intervals; irregular or occasional; appearing in scattered or isolated instances
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Standardised Instructions
A list of instructions for all participants that is the same for all people
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Statement
A communication or declaration setting forth facts, particulars; an expression
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Straightforward
Without difficulty; uncomplicated; direct; easy to do or understand
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Stratified Sampling
A type of sampling in which a sample is taken of each strata of the population
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Structure
Verb: Give a pattern, organisation or arrangement to; construct or arrange according to a plan; Noun: In languages, arrangement of words into larger units, e.g. phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs and whole texts, in line with cultural, intercultural and textual conventions
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Structured
Organised or arranged so as to produce a desired result
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Subject
A branch or area of knowledge or learning defined by a syllabus; school subjects are usually based in a discipline or field of study (see also 'course')
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Subject Matter
The subject-specific body of information, mental procedures and psychomotor procedures that are necessary for students' learning and engagement within that subject
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Substantial
Of ample or considerable amount, quantity, size, etc.; of real worth or value; firmly or solidly established; of real significance; reliable; important; worthwhile
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Substantiated
Established by proof or competent evidence
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Subtle
Fine or delicate in meaning or intent; making use of indirect methods; not straightforward or obvious
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Successful
Achieving or having achieved success; accomplishing a desired aim or result
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Succinct
Expressed in few words; concise; terse; characterised by conciseness or brevity; brief and clear
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Sufficient
Enough or adequate for the purpose
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Suitable
Appropriate; fitting; conforming or agreeing in nature, condition, or action
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Summarise
Give a brief statement of a general theme or major point/s; present ideas and information in fewer words and in sequence
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Summative Assessment
Assessment whose major purpose is to indicate student achievement; summative assessments contribute towards a student's subject result
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Superficial
Concerned with or comprehending only what is on the surface or obvious; shallow; not profound, thorough, deep, or complete; existing or occurring at or on the surface; cursory; lacking depth of character or understanding; apparent and sometimes trivial
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Supported
Corroborated; given greater credibility by providing evidence
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Sustained
Carried on continuously, without interruption, or without any diminishing of intensity or extent
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Syllabus
A document that prescribes the curriculum for a course of study
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Syllabus Objectives
Outline what the school is required to teach and what students have the opportunity to learn; described in terms of actions that operate on the subject matter; the overarching objectives for a course of study (see also 'unit objectives', 'assessment objectives')
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Symbolise
Represent or identify by a symbol or symbols
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Synthesise
Combine different parts or elements (e.g. information, ideas, components) into a whole, in order to create new understanding
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System
A group of interacting objects, materials or processes that form an integrated whole; systems can be open or closed (ACARA 2015c)
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Systematic
Done or acting according to a fixed plan or system; methodical; organised and logical; having, showing, or involving a system, method, or plan; characterised by system or method; methodical; arranged in, or comprising an ordered system
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T
Test
Take measures to check the quality, performance or reliability of something
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Theory
In science, a set of concepts, claims and/or laws that can be used to explain and predict a wide range of related observed or observable phenomena; theories are typically founded on clearly identifiable assumptions, are testable, produce reproducible results and have explanatory power (ACARA 2015c)
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Thorough
Carried out through, or applied to the whole of something; carried out completely and carefully; including all that is required; complete with attention to every detail; not superficial or partial; performed or written with care and completeness; taking pains to do something carefully and completely
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Thoughtful
Occupied with, or given to thought; contemplative; meditative; reflective; characterised by or manifesting thought
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Topic
A division of, or sub-section within a unit; all topics/sub-topics within a unit are interrelated
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Trend
General direction in which something is changing (ACARA 2015c)
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Type I Errors
Rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true; a false positive (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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Type II Errors
Non-rejection of the null hypothesis when it is false; a false negative, a miss (Cumming & Calin-Jageman 2017)
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U
Uncertainty
Range of values for a measurement result, taking account of the likely values that could be attributed to the measurement result given the measurement equipment, procedure and environment (ACARA 2015c); indicators of uncertainty may include percentage, and/or absolute measurement uncertainty, confidence intervals, inferential statistics, statistical measure of spread, e.g. range, standard deviation
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Unclear
Not clear or distinct; not easy to understand; obscure
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Understand
Perceive what is meant by something; grasp; be familiar with (e.g. an idea); construct meaning from messages, including oral, written and graphic communication
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Understanding
Perception of what is meant by something
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Uneven
Unequal; not properly corresponding or agreeing; irregular; varying; not uniform; not equally balanced
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Unfamiliar
Not previously encountered; situations or materials that have not been the focus of prior learning experiences or activities
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Unit
A defined amount of subject matter delivered in a specific context or with a particular focus; it includes unit objectives particular to the unit, subject matter and assessment direction
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Unit Objectives
Drawn from the syllabus objectives and contextualised for the subject matter and requirements of a particular unit; they are assessed at least once in the unit (see also 'syllabus objectives', 'assessment objectives')
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Unrelated
Having no relationship; unconnected
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Use
Operate or put into effect; apply knowledge or rules to put theory into practice
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V
Vague
Not definite in statement or meaning; not explicit or precise; not definitely fixed, determined or known; of uncertain, indefinite or unclear character or meaning; not clear in thought or understanding; couched in general or indefinite terms; not definitely or precisely expressed; deficient in details or particulars; thinking or communicating in an unfocused or imprecise way
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Valid
Sound, just or well-founded; authoritative; having a sound basis in logic or fact (of an argument or point); reasonable or cogent; able to be supported; legitimate and defensible; applicable
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Validity
In science, the extent to which tests measure what was intended; the extent to which data, inferences and actions produced from tests and other processes are accurate (ACARA 2015c)
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Variable
Adjective: apt or liable to vary or change; changeable; inconsistent; (readily) susceptible or capable of variation; fluctuating, uncertain; Noun: in mathematics, a symbol, or the quantity it signifies, that may represent any one of a given set of number and other objects; in science, a factor that can be changed, kept the same or measured in an investigation, e.g. time, distance, light, temperature
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Variety
A number or range of things of different kinds, or the same general class, that are distinct in character or quality; (of sources) a number of different modes or references
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Visual Representations
In science, an image that shows relationships within scientific evidence
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W
Wide
Of great range or scope; embracing a great number or variety of subjects, cases, etc.; of full extent
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With Expression
In words, art, music or movement, conveying or indicating feeling, spirit, character, etc.; a way of expressing or representing something; vivid, effective or persuasive communication
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