Syllabus
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Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems
Topic 1: Earth systems and models
Natural systems
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 1: Earth systems and models > Natural systems
- Define and describe a system, including: open systems, closed systems, isolated systems
- Describe the difference between open, closed and isolated systems in terms of the flow of energy and matter
- Describe each of the four systems: geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
- Describe the purposes of models using an example that conceptualises a specific Earth and environmental process (e.g. subduction)
- Explain the nature of scientific theories and models.
Topic 2: Development of the geosphere
Uniformitarianism
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Uniformitarianism
- Explain and apply the principle of uniformitarianism to infer past events and processes using present-day observations.
Stratigraphy and fossil records
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Stratigraphy and fossil records
- Explain how the principles of stratigraphy are used to determine the relative age of structures and sequence the fossil record, including: superposition cross-cutting relationships inclusions horizontality and fossil record correlation
- Describe how geological processes may involve: slow transitions, including subduction and erosion fast transitions, including volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
- Deduce age relationships, including conformable and unconformable geological boundaries, and evaluate decisions made using the principles of stratigraphy
- Deduce correlations and evaluate decisions about index fossils and the process of correlation
- Summarise the role of fossils (including index fossils) and stratigraphic evidence, in the construction of the fossil record and geological timescale.
Radioactive dating
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Radioactive dating
- Explain how precise dates can be assigned to points on the relative geological timescale using data derived from the decay of radioisotopes in rocks and minerals; this establishes an absolute timescale and places the age of the Earth at 4.5 billion years
- Interpret graphical representation of half-life to show how radioisotopes can be used to date rocks and minerals.
Interior structure of the Earth
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Interior structure of the Earth
- Describe Earth's internal differentiation into a layered structure: a solid metallic inner core, a liquid metallic outer core and a silicate mantle and crust
- Evaluate how the study of seismic waves (P-wave and S-wave shadow zones and discontinuities in seismic wave velocities) and meteorites provides evidence for the Earth’s interior structure.
Rocks and minerals
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Rocks and minerals
- Describe the chemical composition of a variety of minerals present in rocks, including felsic and mafic minerals
- Explain how rocks are composed of characteristic assemblages of mineral crystals or grains that are formed through specific processes: igneous — plutonic and volcanic sedimentary — clastic, chemical and organic metamorphic — contact, regional and dynamic
- Explain the rock cycle
- Classify common rocks using keys, tables or flow charts
- Evaluate and make reasoned decisions using keys, tables or flow charts to identify rocks.
- Mandatory practical: Identify examples of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks from the local or regional environment using key-based classification.
Soil formation and classification
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 2: Development of the geosphere > Soil formation and classification
- Explain how soil formation requires interaction between atmospheric, geologic, hydrologic and biotic processes, including weathering and erosion.
- Describe the processes of physical (mechanical) and chemical weathering of rock
- Describe and compare the composition of soil in terms of rock and mineral particles, organic material, water, gases and living organisms
- Classify different soil types using percentage composition of sand, silt and clay (i.e. soil ternary diagram)
- Explain the correlation between soil type and native vegetation (i.e. this correlation is what many soils maps of Australia are based on)
- Collect and organise data to classify soils and evaluate decisions and limitations made about soil classification.
- Mandatory practical: Use local soil samples to measure soil properties to classify and assess quality, including organic content, pH, moisture content, soil texture and structure.
Topic 3: Development of the atmosphere and hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 3: Development of the atmosphere and hydrosphere > Hydrosphere
- Describe how water naturally occurs in three phases (i.e. solid, liquid, gas) on Earth
- Explain how water’s unique properties, including its boiling point, density in solid and liquid phase, surface tension, ability to act as a solvent, and its abundance on the surface of Earth, make it an important component of Earth system processes, including precipitation, ice sheet formation, evapotranspiration and solution of salts
- Describe and evaluate evidence for theories on the origins of water on Earth, including volcanic outgassing and the impact of icy bodies from space.
Atmosphere
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 3: Development of the atmosphere and hydrosphere > Atmosphere
- Describe the layered structure of the modern atmosphere as characterised by changes in temperature and movement of air masses in the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere
- Explain the location and role of the ozone layer in the atmosphere
- Describe and evaluate the evidence for theories of how the atmosphere was formed including: - volcanic outgassing during cooling and differentiation of Earth - significant modification of its composition by the actions of photosynthesising organisms.
Topic 4: Development of the biosphere
Origin of the biosphere
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 4: Development of the biosphere > Origin of the biosphere
- Describe and evaluate evidence for theories about the origin and development of the biosphere, including:
Characteristics of the biosphere
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 4: Development of the biosphere > Characteristics of the biosphere
- Describe how biotic and abiotic characteristics of the spheres, such as organisms, temperature, surface water, substrate and available light, will vary with location
- Explain how the unique nature of individual communities in the biosphere is dependent on the characteristics of the location
- Discuss how communities are dynamic in nature and processes will allow communities to change as the characteristics of the spheres change.
Biosphere past to present
Unit 1: Introduction to Earth systems > Topic 4: Development of the biosphere > Biosphere past to present
- Explain processes and limitations of evidence of the biosphere’s past by: explaining the formation of body and trace fossils in strata and how the processes of formation lead to preservation of different levels of detail in the fossils analysing sedimentary sequences with differing characteristics and inferring the original depositional environment discussing how past environments and communities can be inferred from sedimentary rocks and enclosed fossils, including limitations of this record
- Evaluate evidence from the fossil record for the diversification and proliferation of living organisms over time
- Analyse and evaluate fossil evidence to support theories of mass extinctions and ecosystem change, including the Permian or Cretaceous mass extinction events
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations
Topic 1: Energy for Earth processes
Energy
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 1: Energy for Earth processes > Energy
- Describe different types of energy, including nuclear, kinetic, gravitational, thermal and light
- Describe and apply the first law of thermodynamics to Earth systems
- Explain and investigate modes of energy transfer, including convection, conduction and radiation
- Identify energy transformations and storage in Earth systems, including evaporation, movement of tectonic plates, photosynthesis and the ocean as a heat sink
- Analyse primary data on energy transfer, including convection, conduction and radiation.
Energy and the water cycle
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 1: Energy for Earth processes > Energy and the water cycle
- Describe the water cycle, including the terms evaporation, condensation, precipitation, run-off, snowmelt, infiltration and groundwater storage
- Explain and investigate the relationship between thermal and light energy from the Sun and phase changes of water as it relates to the water cycle
- Construct a flow chart to show the transfer, transformation and storage of energy in the water cycle.
Energy and the Earth’s core
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 1: Energy for Earth processes > Energy and the Earth’s core
- Describe how the decay of radioisotopes is the source of heat in the Earth’s core
- Explain how energy is transferred from the core to the crust
- Examine how transformations of kinetic, gravitational and thermal energy create movement of tectonic plates, including mantle convection, plume formation and slab pull.
Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes
Solar energy
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes > Solar energy
- Describe solar energy as electromagnetic radiation, including ultraviolet radiation
- Analyse how the transfer of solar energy to the Earth’s surface is influenced by:
Thermal radiation and the greenhouse effect
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes > Thermal radiation and the greenhouse effect
- Explain how thermal radiation is absorbed and emitted from the Earth’s surface
- Compare the major greenhouse gases and their sources, including carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour
- Explain how greenhouse gases can reflect or scatter some infrared radiation, leading to the greenhouse effect
- Analyse primary and secondary data relevant to the greenhouse effect
- Mandatory practical: Identify the effect of greenhouse conditions on temperature, using a model.
Air pressure
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes > Air pressure
- Explain how air pressure is generated
- Explain that movement of air is due to equalisation of pressure differences caused by heating and cooling, as well as Earth’s rotation and revolution
- Apply knowledge of air pressure: to explain patterns of systematic atmospheric circulation to explain the transfer of thermal energy around the Earth’s surface via systematic atmospheric circulation
- Identify common features on synoptic charts and satellite images, including high and low pressure and isobars.
- Mandatory practical: Interpret the features of synoptic charts and satellite images, including high and low pressure and isobars.
Ocean currents
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes > Ocean currents
- Explain how global oceans act as heat sinks
- Explain that movement of systematic ocean currents, including the global ocean conveyor model, is due to: equalisation of temperature differences caused by heating and cooling Earth's rotation, gravity and seasonality.
Weather patterns
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 2: Energy for atmospheric and hydrologic processes > Weather patterns
- Describe weather as an interaction between the atmosphere and hydrosphere
- Explain El Niño and La Niña
- Compare the conditions causing and effects of El Niño and La Niña at local and global levels, including the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)
- Analyse secondary data and make reasoned decisions about El Niño and La Niña patterns.
Topic 3: Energy for biogeochemical processes
Net primary production
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 3: Energy for biogeochemical processes > Net primary production
- Describe a balanced chemical equation to represent photosynthesis
- Explain how the process of photosynthesis is the principal mechanism for the transformation of energy from the Sun into energy forms that are useful for living things
- Define net primary production as the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly through photosynthesis
- Interpret and analyse energy transfer and transformation through food webs, energy pyramids and trophic levels from secondary data.
Ecosystem carrying capacity
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 3: Energy for biogeochemical processes > Ecosystem carrying capacity
- Define carrying capacity in relation to ecosystems
- Infer how energy and matter directly affect the number of organisms that can be supported in an ecosystem
- Construct representations to show the differences in carrying capacity between ecosystems.
Biogeochemical cycling
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 3: Energy for biogeochemical processes > Biogeochemical cycling
- Explain the cycling of nitrogen and phosphorus between Earth systems
- Analyse secondary data (i.e. measured concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in different water samples) to make reasoned judgments about the quality of water and health of the system it came from.
Carbon cycle
Unit 2: Earth processes — energy transfers and transformations > Topic 3: Energy for biogeochemical processes > Carbon cycle
- Explain the cycling of carbon between Earth systems
- Identify examples of energy storage, transfer and transformation in the carbon cycle
- Describe different geological elements of carbon storage including hydrocarbons, coal and kerogens
- Compare energy storage timescales between living things and geological elements, including sinks and residency periods.
Unit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources
view_agenda query_statsTopic 1: Use of non-renewable Earth resources
view_agenda query_statsFormation and location of non-renewable mineral and energy resources
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 1: Use of non-renewable Earth resources > Formation and location of non-renewable mineral and energy resources
- Describe the differences between metallic, non-metallic and energy resources
- Explain how non-renewable mineral and energy resources are formed over geological timescales, which means they are not readily replenished within a typical lifetime, including: metallic resources (bauxite, gold and iron ore) non-metallic (mineral sands) fossil fuels (coal, coal seam gas, crude oil and natural gas)
- Explain how the location of non-renewable mineral and energy resources is related to their geological setting, including: igneous settings, including magmatic, hydrothermal and exhalative processes sedimentary settings, including placer deposits, geochemical processes and stratigraphic traps metamorphic settings
- Predict the viability of a location as a source of metallic, non-metallic or fossil fuels based on its geological setting.
Exploration of mineral and energy resources
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 1: Use of non-renewable Earth resources > Exploration of mineral and energy resources
- Describe the role of licensing and permissions in resource exploration
- Explain how mineral and energy resources are discovered using a variety of techniques to identify the location, spatial extent of the deposit and quality of the resource, including: literature and historic records remote sensing techniques, including satellite and aerial imaging, hyperspectral imaging, and geophysical datasets for magnetic, gravitational and radioactive testing direct sampling geochemical techniques, including soil, rock sampling, auguring, drilling and core sampling
- Explore the relationship between methods used to explore for specific resources and the physical properties of those resources
- Interpret secondary geophysical and geochemical data to predict the presence of a resource.
- Mandatory practical: Analyse and interpret geophysical and geochemical exploration datasets.
Extraction, separation and processing of mineral and energy resources
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 1: Use of non-renewable Earth resources > Extraction, separation and processing of mineral and energy resources
- Explain how the type, volume and location of mineral and energy resources influences the methods of extraction, including: dredging open-cut onshore and offshore drilling fracking room and pillar (also known as bord and pillar) stoping
- Explain separation and processing techniques for: metallic and non-metallic resources, including crushing, milling, sluicing, froth flotation and smelting fossil fuels, including separation, fractional distillation and fracking
- Analyse the relationship between the physical and chemical properties of Earth resources and extraction, separation and processing techniques used for: metallic resources (bauxite, gold and iron ore) non-metallic resources (mineral sands) fossil fuels (coal and crude oil).
Environmental monitoring and management
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 1: Use of non-renewable Earth resources > Environmental monitoring and management
- Describe how resource extraction can affect the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
- Explain how common environmental factors are monitored to minimise environmental impacts, including: air quality water quality, including pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity soil quality, including pH, erosion, changes in soil structure distribution and abundance survey of organisms noise pollution
- Interpret data from environmental monitoring
- Analyse and evaluate the effectiveness of the resource industries’ environmental monitoring strategies.
- Mandatory practical: Conduct an experiment to model turbidity management strategies, using settling ponds.
Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources
view_agenda query_statsRenewable resources
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Renewable resources
- Describe renewable resources as those that are typically replenished at timescales of years to decades: harvestable resources, including water, biota energy resources, including solar, wind and geothermal ecosystem services, including clean air, food and water as environmental assets.
Ecosystems
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Ecosystems
- Explain how ecosystems provide a range of: renewable resources, including provisioning of food and water regulating services, including carbon sequestration supporting services, including soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, air and water purification cultural services, including aesthetics and the connection between social, ecological understanding and sustainability.
Replenishment of renewable resources
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Replenishment of renewable resources
- Explain how the sustainable use of a resource is dependent on abundance and its replenishment rate at local, regional and global scales for: biota, including marine species and forestry surface water and groundwater geothermal
- Investigate sustainability of renewable resources at a local, regional and global scale
Energy transfer and storage
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Energy transfer and storage
- Investigate how cost-effective use of solar, wind and hydroelectric energy are constrained by the efficiency of available technologies to collect, transfer and store energy by: identifying methods for harvesting, transformation and storage comparing the efficiency of energy capture, transfer and storage evaluating their relative potential as an energy source
- Mandatory practical: Conduct an experiment to calculate and compare the efficiency of renewable energy sources (units such as kW/hr will allow direct comparison between renewable energy sources) including solar, wind and hydroelectric, evaluating their relative potential as an energy source.
Availability of fresh water
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Availability of fresh water
- Explain how the availability and quality of fresh water at local and regional scales is influenced by: human activities, including provisioning of dams, urbanisation, over-extraction and pollution natural processes, including salinity, siltation, drought and algal blooms
- Compare local and regional issues that affect availability and quality of fresh water
- Predict and propose solutions relating to siltation, drought and algal blooms.
Human impact on ecosystems
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Human impact on ecosystems
- Explain how human activities, including species removal, habitat destruction, pest introduction and dryland salinity, can affect ecosystems
- Compare case studies of positive and negative human influences on ecosystem viability at local, regional and global scales.
Sustainable harvesting of biota
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Sustainable harvesting of biota
- Explain how over-harvesting biota reduces populations to beneath the threshold of population viability, including native fisheries
- Describe how population size and nomadic culture of Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples allowed sustainable harvesting of Australian biota
- Determine the maximum sustainable yield of relevant aquatic or terrestrial Australian biota using secondary data.
Ecological footprint
view_agenda query_statsUnit 3: Living on Earth — extracting, using and managing Earth resources > Topic 2: Use of renewable Earth resources > Ecological footprint
- Explain the concept of an ecological footprint (i.e. magnitude of demand for ecological resources)
- Describe how the demand for ecological resources must be balanced against producing, harvesting, transporting and processing, as well as associated wastes
- Make reasoned judgments about the viability of using resources relative to maintaining a sustainable ecological footprint.
Unit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards
view_agenda query_statsTopic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards
view_agenda query_statsEarth hazards and plate tectonic processes
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards > Earth hazards and plate tectonic processes
- Describe what occurs at plate boundaries, including divergent, convergent and transform boundaries
- Explain how earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis are the result of: plate tectonics, interactions between Earth’s systems
- Explain how hazardous outcomes of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis can affect life, health, property and the environment (biosphere)
- Explain and investigate how the occurrence of these events influences other Earth processes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, including the effect of ash clouds on global weather patterns
- Evaluate the effect that mitigation strategies, such as building design, location and early warning systems, can have on the consequences of earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic activity
- Mandatory practical: Gather and analyse secondary data on recent and/or historic volcanic activity to evaluate the relationship between volcanic eruptions and the effect of ash clouds on global temperature patterns.
Predicting Earth hazards
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards > Predicting Earth hazards
- Analyse data, including earthquake location and frequency data, and ground motion monitoring to map potentially hazardous zones for earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis
- Evaluate secondary data and use it to predict the location and probability of repeat occurrences of hazardous Earth events, including volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis
- Mandatory practical: Construct a map of hazardous zones by using secondary data sources and research from valid historical records to predict possible future volcanic activity, earthquakes and tsunamis.
Effects of cyclones, flood events and droughts
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards > Effects of cyclones, flood events and droughts
- Describe the naming and classification systems of cyclones
- Explain the causes of major weather systems, including cyclones, flood events and droughts
- Identify and explain the likely location of major weather hazards, including cyclones, flood events and droughts, using topographic maps and meteorological data
- Predict the effects of cyclones, flood events and droughts on Earth processes and interactions, including: habitat destruction vegetation distribution patterns erosion river system structures ecosystem regeneration.
Human activities and natural hazards
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards > Human activities and natural hazards
- Explain how human activities, including land clearing and urbanisation, can positively and negatively contribute to the frequency, magnitude and intensity of local and regional incidents of: droughts floods bushfires landslides.
Impact of natural hazards
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 1: The cause and impact of Earth hazards > Impact of natural hazards
- Explain how organisms, including humans and ecosystems, are affected by the location, magnitude and intensity of droughts, floods and bushfires, the configuration of Earth materials that influence droughts, floods and bushfires, including biomass and substrate.
- Mandatory practical: Model the influence of run-off coefficient of different substrates on the run-off rate in a flood event.
Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change
view_agenda query_statsContributions to climate changes
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change > Contributions to climate changes
- Explain how natural processes contribute to global climate changes, including: oceanic circulation orbitally induced solar radiation fluctuations the plate tectonic super-cycle
- Explain how human activities, including land clearing, fossil fuel consumption and gas production contribute to global climate changes
- Compare the effects of natural processes and human activities on global climate changes at a variety of timescales.
The effect of human activities on atmosphere and climatic conditions
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change > The effect of human activities on atmosphere and climatic conditions
- Explain how human activities contribute to changes in the composition of the atmosphere and climatic conditions including: land clearing fossil fuel consumption gas production (including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and hydrofluorocarbons) particulate materials in the atmosphere
- Compare the influence of both human and natural processes on the generation and increase of gases into the atmosphere
- Draw conclusions about the extent to which human and natural processes contribute to the generation and release of gases into the atmosphere.
- Mandatory practical: Analyse secondary data to evaluate the impact of changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration over time to global temperatures.
Effect of climate change on the systems
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change > Effect of climate change on the systems
- Explain how climate change affects the biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere and hydrosphere
- Identify and explore, using secondary data, the influence of climate change on:
Impacts of climate change
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change > Impacts of climate change
- Analyse and evaluate the geological, prehistorical and historical records that provide evidence for climate change, including: fossils, pollen grains, ice core data, isotopic ratios
- Analyse the evidence that demonstrates how climate change has affected different regions and species differently over time.
Climate change models
view_agenda query_statsUnit 4: The changing Earth — the cause and impact of Earth hazards > Topic 2: The cause and impact of global climate change > Climate change models
- Identify how climate change models describe the behaviour and interactions of the oceans and atmosphere, including: general circulation models, models of El Niño and La Niña
- Examine who has developed these models, where they have been developed and how long these models have been used for
- Explain that climate change models are used to make predictions in response to changes in contributing components, including atmospheric composition and global ice cover
- Evaluate the validity of various models, including general circulation, El Niño and La Niña models
- Appreciate the importance of the information these predictions provide to evaluate government decisions.